Samsara in Buddhism: Meaning, Characteristics and More

A simple definition of reincarnation among the many concepts that have been introduced is the rebirth or transmigration of the soul into a new body after death. Those who believe in reincarnation view the body and soul as two separate entities, where only the body dies while the soul is immortal. After death, the soul departs from the body and continues its journey on the wheel of reincarnation to another life.

For many people, the concept of reincarnation or rebirth is fascinating and mysterious. In Buddhist philosophy, this cycle of birth and death is known as Samsara, and it is at the heart of their belief system. Samsara is not just a philosophical concept but a lived reality for billions of people who practice Buddhism around the world.

Meaning of Samsara in Buddhism

Samsara, a term originating from Sanskrit, fundamentally constitutes the cyclical process of birth, death, and rebirth prevalent in various Indian religions, including Buddhism. This cycle of existence, according to Buddhist doctrine, continues incessantly until liberation (Nirvana) is attained, thereby breaking this cycle of perpetual suffering.

And what is Samsara? Samsara is the continuous cycle of birth and rebirth, rolling on endlessly without a stopping point, only ceasing when one attains liberation and realizes Nirvana.

Many theories define the wheel of reincarnation in connection with the concept of the soul. In this, the human body is associated with two separate parts: the soul and the physical body. The physical body can change and decay, but the soul remains eternal, reborn into another body to continue the journey of life. This process goes on from one life to another without end.

But in Buddhism, the cycle of reincarnation does not involve the soul leaving a dead body to enter another, but rather the soul must go through a long time, existing in many forms of energy. From there, it can be reborn in the human form or in a lower being. The wheel of reincarnation continues, with the next life inheriting the merits of the previous one.

Understanding Samsara requires a nuanced comprehension of the core doctrines and principles of Buddhism. Samsara is inexorably connected to the concepts of Karma, the law of moral causation, and Twelve Links of Dependent Origination, which present the interdependent origination of life and suffering.

In the Buddhist conceptual framework, sentient beings wander through Samsara, continually reborn in different realms of existence.  These realms, often classified into six types, include heavenly beings (Devas), humans, Asuras (demigods or ‘fighting demons’), animals, Pretas (‘hungry ghosts’), and the hellish beings. The realm of rebirth is influenced by Karma, which accrues based on the moral value of an individual’s actions.

A critical element underpinning Samsara is Dukkha, often translated as suffering, dissatisfaction, or stress. It embodies the unsatisfactory and painful nature of existence within Samsara. The Buddha, in his first sermon after enlightenment, addressed the omnipresence of Dukkha in the human experience, constituting one of the Four Noble Truths.

Central to Samsara is the concept of Non-self (Anatta), which negates the existence of a permanent, independent self. The belief in a continuing identity or an unchanging ‘soul’ across lives is a misapprehension according to Buddhism. Instead, what transmigrates from one life to another is a continuum of consciousness, akin to a stream rather than a single, self-contained entity.

Nirvana, in Buddhist doctrine, is the cessation of this cyclical existence. It signifies the ultimate liberation from Samsara, achieved through the eradication of ignorance and craving, thus breaking the cycle of Karma and Dukkha. The path to Nirvana involves the practice of moral discipline, meditation, and the development of wisdom—collectively embodied in the Noble Eightfold Path.

Six Realms of Samsara in Buddhism

Within the framework of Buddhism, Samsara, the endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, is characterized by the existence of various realms of rebirth.  These realms, typically classified into six categories or ‘domains’, represent the spectrum of experiences within Samsara and are largely determined by the accumulated Karma of individual beings. The six realms, ordered from the highest to the lowest, are as follows:

1. Deva realm (Heavenly Realm): This realm is inhabited by heavenly beings or gods (Devas). Life in the Deva realm is marked by pleasure and abundance, yet it is not permanent. Devas live long lives filled with grandeur and joy, but they are still subject to death and rebirth. It’s crucial to note that life in the Deva realm, despite its pleasantries, can lead to complacency and neglect of spiritual practice due to its inherent luxuries.
2. Asura realm (Realm of Titans or Demigods): Asuras are beings who possess some degree of power and wealth, comparable to Devas, but are plagued by envy, jealousy, and perpetual conflict. Their lives are often characterized by struggle and contention, particularly with the Devas, stemming from their insatiable ambition and competitive nature.
3. Human realm: The human realm is considered uniquely advantageous for spiritual practice. Despite the presence of suffering, humans possess the capacity for moral judgement and spiritual growth. The balance of pleasure and pain in the human realm makes it conducive for understanding the Four Noble Truths and practicing the Noble Eightfold Path.
4. Animal realm: This realm is marked by ignorance and is characterized by beings driven predominantly by instinct. Beings in this realm are often subject to exploitation and predation by humans and other animals. The primary suffering in this realm is driven by fear, survival instincts, and a lack of higher consciousness or moral judgement.
5. Preta realm (Realm of Hungry Ghosts):  Inhabitants of this realm, known as ‘hungry ghosts‘, are characterized by insatiable desire, particularly for food and drink, but are unable to satisfy these cravings. This realm represents the state of constant desire and the suffering that arises from unfulfilled wants.
6. Naraka realm (Hell Realm): This is the lowest realm in Samsara, characterized by intense suffering, often depicted as torture and extreme conditions, akin to descriptions of hell in Western religions. The beings in this realm undergo intense suffering for a certain period before they are reborn in a different realm, based on their Karma.

You must to understand that these realms are not physical locations; rather, they represent different states of existence or consciousness, which sentient beings experience based on their accumulated Karma. The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to transcend these realms by achieving liberation from the cycle of Samsara.

What Causes Rebirth in Samsara?

The primary factor perpetuating rebirth within the cycle of Samsara, as posited by Buddhist doctrine, is the interplay of ignorance (avidya) and craving (tanha). These twin factors fuel the continuation of life, death, and rebirth, driving sentient beings to navigate the diverse realms of existence in Samsara.

The genesis of this cyclical process lies in the concept of the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination (12 Nidanas), which explicates the chain of causation leading to rebirth and suffering.  The Twelve Links of Dependent Origination highlight a complex, interdependent process, wherein each link influences and is influenced by the others.

Ignorance, the first of the Twelve Nidanas, refers to the ignorance of the Four Noble Truths. This ignorance engenders volitional actions or formations (sankhara) — both wholesome and unwholesome — driven by desire, aversion and delusion. These volitional actions leave a karmic imprint on the stream of consciousness, shaping its future course.

Consciousness (vijnana), the third link, represents the continuum of awareness that survives death and connects one life to the next. Along with consciousness, name-and-form (nama-rupa) — the mental and physical components of an individual — also come into existence. The next links, the six sense bases (salayatana), contact (phassa), and feeling (vedana), refer to the interaction of the sense organs with the external world and the sensations and feelings that arise from such interactions.

From these feelings, craving arises — the thirst for sensory pleasure, existence and non-existence. Craving, coupled with ignorance, leads to clinging or grasping (upadana) to the objects of desire, which subsequently results in becoming (bhava), or the active process of being that precedes rebirth.

The final two links, birth (jati) and aging-and-death (jara-marana), depict the physical process of coming into existence and the subsequent decay and death. This chain of dependent origination elucidates how ignorance and craving, through a complex sequence of interdependent events, lead to rebirth within Samsara.

Breaking this cycle of rebirth requires the elimination of ignorance and the cessation of craving, as outlined in the Noble Eightfold Path.  Through moral discipline, concentration, and wisdom, one can achieve liberation from Samsara, thereby ending the cycle of rebirth and suffering.

Characteristics of Samsara

Samsara, a central concept in Buddhism, refers to the perpetual cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. Its characteristics are underpinned by several pivotal doctrines of Buddhism, forming a comprehensive philosophical framework.

Cyclical and continuous: Samsara, first and foremost, is cyclical and ceaseless. It symbolizes a wheel of existence that turns continuously, with sentient beings caught in its rotation. Each existence within Samsara is transient, inevitably leading to death, which is subsequently followed by rebirth.

Governed by Karma: The process of Samsara is deeply intertwined with the law of Karma. Every intentional action leaves a karmic imprint, which influences the circumstances of subsequent lives. This moral causation determines the realm and conditions of rebirth.

Inextricably linked to Dukkha: Existence within Samsara is marked by Dukkha, commonly translated as suffering, dissatisfaction, or stress. This characteristic highlights the inherent unsatisfactoriness and imperfection of life in Samsara, arising from physical pain, emotional distress, and the fundamental unsatisfactoriness of transient pleasure.

Driven by Ignorance and Craving: The force propelling the continuation of Samsara lies in ignorance and craving. Ignorance of the Four Noble Truths and the reality of existence leads to craving, the thirst for sensory pleasure, existence and non-existence. This interplay between ignorance and craving forms the foundation of the Twelve Nidanas, outlining the chain of dependent origination resulting in rebirth and suffering.

Characterized by Non-self: A defining characteristic of Samsara is the absence of a permanent, unchanging self or soul, known as Anatta.  What transmigrates across lives is a continuum of consciousness, influenced by Karma and laden with mental formations. The mistaken belief in a permanent self is a significant source of suffering and a barrier to liberation from Samsara.

Potential for liberation: A distinctive feature of Samsara, contrary to its nature of perpetual suffering, is the potential for liberation. Through the practice of the Noble Eightfold Path, one can eliminate ignorance and cease craving, attaining Nirvana – the cessation of the cycle of Samsara.

How does Cycle of Samsara Work?

The operational mechanics of Samsara are intricate, primarily governed by Karma, the Twelve Nidanas (Dependent Origination), and key Buddhist doctrines such as Anatta (non-self) and Anicca (impermanence).

Role of Karma: Karma, signifying action or deed, constitutes a fundamental mechanism driving Samsara. In Buddhist philosophy, Karma refers to volitional actions driven by intention. These actions, be they wholesome or unwholesome, create a karmic imprint on the continuum of consciousness, influencing the future course of an individual’s existence. Karma essentially dictates the quality, circumstances, and realm of one’s rebirth within Samsara. Positive or meritorious actions lead to a favourable rebirth, such as in heavenly realms or as a human, while negative actions result in an unfavourable rebirth, potentially in realms of suffering, like the animal or hell realms.

Twelve Nidanas (Dependent Origination): The cycle of Samsara is elucidated through the principle of the Twelve Nidanas or Dependent Origination, a series of interconnected phenomena leading to rebirth and suffering. This process commences with ignorance (avidya) of the true nature of reality, which gives rise to volitional formations (sankhara), followed by consciousness (vijnana), name-and-form (nama-rupa), the six sense bases (salayatana), contact (phassa), feeling (vedana), craving (tanha), clinging (upadana), becoming (bhava), birth (jati), and finally, aging-and-death (jara-marana). Each link in this chain arises dependently on the preceding link and gives rise to the succeeding one, forming a cycle that propels the process of Samsara.

Concepts of Anatta and Anicca: Central to the functioning of Samsara are the doctrines of Anatta, meaning ‘no-self’, and Anicca, denoting ‘impermanence‘. Anatta negates the existence of a permanent, independent self, suggesting that what transmigrates from one life to the next is a stream of consciousness, rather than a fixed entity. Anicca, on the other hand, underscores the transient and impermanent nature of all phenomena, including life itself within Samsara.

Liberation from Samsara (Nirvana): The cessation of this cyclical existence, termed Nirvana, represents the ultimate goal in Buddhism. By eradicating ignorance and craving through the Noble Eightfold Path — a disciplined practice encompassing morality, meditation and wisdom — one can break the cycle of Samsara, thereby attaining liberation.

How to Break Free from Samsara?

Buddhist philosophy provides a clearly delineated path to liberation from Samsara, the endless cycle of birth, death and rebirth. The process involves a profound transformation of understanding and behavior, achieved through the diligent practice of the Noble Eightfold Path.

Noble Eightfold Path: As prescribed by the Buddha, the Noble Eightfold Path offers the primary route to liberation from Samsara. It consists of eight interrelated elements: Right Understanding, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration.

1. Right Understanding (Samma Ditthi): The first step towards liberation is acquiring a correct understanding of the Four Noble Truths, the fundamental doctrines outlining the nature of suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path leading to its cessation.
2. Right Thought (Samma Sankappa): This involves cultivating thoughts free from desire, ill-will, and cruelty, and instead promoting generosity, loving-kindness, and compassion.
3. Right Speech (Samma Vaca): Abstaining from false speech, malicious speech, harsh speech, and idle chatter constitutes right speech, an essential element in moral discipline.
4. Right Action (Samma Kammanta): This principle advocates for ethical behavior, refraining from actions that cause harm, such as killing, stealing and sexual misconduct.
5. Right Livelihood (Samma Ajiva): It encourages earning a living in ways that do not cause harm or suffering to oneself or others.
6. Right Effort (Samma Vayama): This step entails diligent effort to prevent unwholesome states of mind from arising, to abandon unwholesome states that have already arisen, to cultivate wholesome states that have yet to arise, and to maintain wholesome states that are already present.
7. Right Mindfulness (Samma Sati): This involves the cultivation of mindful awareness of body, feelings, mind, and mind-objects, which aids in seeing the true nature of existence.
8. Right Concentration (Samma Samadhi): This refers to the development of deep meditative states, leading to the emergence of wisdom and the ultimate understanding of reality.

Breaking free from Samsara entails a rigorous and mindful practice of these eight aspects, leading to the eradication of ignorance and the cessation of craving, the two primary forces propelling the cycle of Samsara.

The attainment of Nirvana, the ultimate liberation, is a transformative experience that extinguishes the fires of greed, hatred and delusion. It brings an end to suffering and the cycle of rebirth, ushering in a state of unconditioned peace and ultimate reality. It’s  essential to understand that the path to liberation is gradual, demanding disciplined practice, unwavering commitment, and deep insight into the nature of existence.

Scientific View of Samsara

While the concept of Samsara — the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth — is deeply ingrained in certain religious and philosophical traditions, particularly Buddhism and Hinduism, it does not have a directly equivalent concept in the scientific paradigm. However, various aspects of Samsara can be related to scientific theories or principles, although these relations should be considered as analogies rather than direct correlations.

1. Law of conservation of energy: The First Law of Thermodynamics, also known as the Law of Conservation of Energy, posits that energy cannot be created or destroyed, but only changes form. This principle can be viewed as having a metaphorical similarity with the idea of Samsara, where the essence of an individual is seen to undergo transformation from one life to another, rather than being entirely obliterated or newly created.
2. Evolution and adaptation: The idea of Karma, an essential element of Samsara, where actions in one life influence circumstances in the next, can be loosely compared to the scientific concepts of evolution and adaptation, where traits that promote survival are passed on to succeeding generations. However, it’s critical to note that Karma operates on a moral level based on intentional actions, a concept not found in natural selection.
3. Neuroscience and reincarnation: From a neuroscientific perspective, claims of past life memories, often associated with beliefs in Samsara, have been studied. While some cases are intriguing, they often lack rigorous scientific validation. Moreover, they conflict with our current understanding of memory and consciousness as products of brain function, ceasing with death.
4. Quantum mechanics: Some have drawn parallels between the Buddhist concept of no-self and the principle of non-locality or entanglement in quantum mechanics, where particles are deeply connected regardless of distance. The metaphor suggests a non-fixed, interdependent nature of reality.

Throughout history, there have been numerous accounts of children suddenly recalling memories from what is believed to be their past lives. This phenomenon has intrigued many scientists, including Dr. Stevenson, who dedicated significant efforts to unravel these mysteries with scientific explanations.

Dr. Stevenson, who passed away in 2007, invested considerable time studying children’s past-life memories. Throughout his career, he investigated over 2,500 cases where children recounted past-life experiences, with around 1,200 of these cases being verified with objective evidence.

Dr. Stevenson’s research primarily focused on regions with strong beliefs in reincarnation, such as Asia and India. After four decades of research, he identified seven common traits in children’s past-life memories, which he considered evidence, though not conclusive proof of anything.

These traits included children describing past-life recollections as soon as they could communicate; remembering specific details about their past-life deaths; providing enough details to identify past-life families; continuity in personality traits, preferences, and habits across lifetimes; consistent gender identity across lives in 90% of cases; similar facial features between past and current incarnations; and reincarnation influencing family and social connections.

In a 2013 study published in the Journal of Natural Neuroscience, researchers trained mice to fear a specific scent by associating it with a shock, observing that the subsequent generation exhibited aversion to the scent without prior exposure. They also noticed brain structure changes in the offspring and a correlation between memory trauma and DNA in the sperm of the mice.

The recollection of past-life memories remains a captivating topic that continues to stir curiosity among many, yet science has not fully elucidated it. Like many phenomena that straddle the boundaries between spirituality and science, reincarnation and past-life memories represent a realm where much remains to be explored and understood by scientific inquiry.