What is Stoicism? Definition, History and Practices

Stoicism is a philosophical school of thought that has fascinated individuals for centuries, offering a unique perspective on life, ethics, and personal development.

At its core, Stoicism teaches individuals to focus on what they can control, to accept what they cannot, and to find contentment and inner peace in the midst of life’s challenges. With its emphasis on self-improvement and personal responsibility, Stoicism is a compelling and relevant philosophy that continues to inspire individuals today.

Definition of Stoicism

Stoicism is an ancient school of Hellenistic philosophy founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early 3rd century BC. It is a philosophy of personal ethics distinguished by a system of logic, a view of nature, and a pragmatic approach to the challenges of life.

Stoicism asserts that virtue (understood as the excellence of character and soundness of mind) is the highest good and the foundation for a fulfilled life.  Stoics argue that we should strive to maintain equanimity in the face of life’s vicissitudes, focusing our concern only on things we can control—essentially, our own beliefs, judgments, and actions. They believe that everything external to us, including health, wealth, and reputation, is not inherently good or bad but depends on our perception and judgment. This tenet is encapsulated in the philosophy’s central doctrine, the dichotomy of control.

Furthermore, Stoicism advocates living in accordance with nature, interpreting this as aligning one’s life with the rational structure of the universe. Stoics regard the universe as an organized, coherent system governed by the principle of Logos—a divine rational principle that orders and directs the cosmos. Humans, as rational beings, can achieve a good life by recognizing and conforming to this rational order, embodying wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance, the cardinal Stoic virtues.

Over the centuries, Stoicism has exerted significant influence on various aspects of Western thought, from the Roman legal tradition to Christian theology and modern psychotherapy. Its practical approach to ethics and emphasis on emotional resilience make Stoicism a deeply relevant philosophy in contemporary life. Despite the evolution of philosophical thought, the Stoic ethos of tranquility, virtue, and harmony with nature continues to offer practical guidance for modern society.

History of Stoicism

Stoicism, one of the most influential philosophical movements of the Hellenistic period, traces its origins back to the early 3rd century BCE in Athens. This school of thought, often associated with its emphasis on ethics and the endurance of life’s difficulties with equanimity, has a rich and complex history.

Stoicism was founded by Zeno of Citium, a merchant from Cyprus who turned to philosophy after a shipwreck forced him to Athens.  Influenced by the works of Socrates, Plato, and the Cynics, Zeno began teaching in the Stoa Poikile, a painted colonnade in the Athenian Agora, from which the term ‘Stoicism’ was eventually derived. His teachings, albeit primarily focused on ethics, also encompassed logic and physics as part of a comprehensive philosophical system.

The early Stoic school (3rd century BCE – 1st century BCE), also known as the “Old Stoa,” primarily consisted of Zeno, Cleanthes, and Chrysippus. Their works, unfortunately, survive only in fragmentary quotations and references in later sources. Chrysippus, in particular, was renowned for his contributions to Stoic logic and ethical theory, effectively becoming the systematizer of Stoicism.

The middle period of Stoicism (1st century BCE – 1st century CE) marked a transition from the early, predominantly Greek Stoicism to Roman Stoicism. Panaetius and Posidonius were notable figures of this period, introducing Stoic teachings to the Roman world. The emphasis gradually shifted from logic and physics towards practical ethics, aligning with Roman interests.

The late Stoic period (1st century CE – 2nd century CE) is the most well-documented, primarily because of the surviving works of Seneca, Epictetus, and the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius. They each made significant contributions, collectively emphasizing the central Stoic doctrine of living in accordance with nature and cultivating inner tranquility amidst external turmoil.

Seneca, a statesman and dramatist, is known for his lucid and engaging essays and letters that expounded on Stoic virtues, the impermanence of life, and the necessity of ethical conduct. Epictetus, born a slave, is recognized for his discourses and Enchiridion (Handbook),  offering practical advice for maintaining equanimity in the face of adversity. Marcus Aurelius, the philosopher-emperor, left behind the ‘Meditations,’ a personal reflection on ethics and the human condition, casting light on the practical application of Stoic philosophy.

After the 2nd century CE, Stoicism gradually declined, overshadowed by the rise of Christianity in the Roman Empire. Yet, the principles of Stoic philosophy continued to influence Christian thought, particularly regarding the nature of virtue and the concept of the Logos.

In the modern era,  Stoicism has experienced a revival as a practical philosophy. Its emphasis on rationality, emotional resilience, and virtue-based ethics resonates with contemporary self-improvement strategies, cognitive-behavioral therapy, and approaches to dealing with stress and adversity. The writings of the ancient Stoics remain popular sources of wisdom and guidance, underscoring the enduring legacy of this ancient philosophical school.

The Goal of Stoicism

Stoicism posits a clear and distinct objective: to achieve a state of tranquility, virtue, and inner peace, referred to as ‘ataraxia’ or ‘apatheia.’ This state is accomplished by living in harmony with nature and understanding the universal reason (logos) that governs the cosmos.

Stoics divide all of existence into two domains: things within our control (such as our beliefs, judgments, desires, and actions) and things beyond our control (external events, the actions of others, our birth and death).  The Stoic goal of tranquility and inner peace is accomplished by focusing exclusively on what is within our control, particularly our attitudes, judgments, and reactions.

Stoics assert that by concentrating on our internal states and making deliberate choices aligned with virtue and reason, we can maintain equanimity, irrespective of external circumstances. This focus on personal virtue is central to Stoicism, with the four cardinal virtues being wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance. Stoics perceive these virtues as interdependent expressions of a single, underlying virtue: wisdom.

Furthermore, a crucial aspect of Stoicism is the acceptance of Fate. Stoics believe that the universe is ordered by a rational principle (logos), and everything that transpires is necessary and part of this cosmic plan. By accepting and aligning oneself with this natural order, one can achieve tranquility. This acceptance of fate, however, is not a call for passivity. Stoics emphasize that while we cannot control external events, we can control our responses to them.

To highlight, the prominent Stoic philosopher Epictetus succinctly expresses this in his Enchiridion: “Men are disturbed not by things, but by the views which they take of things.” Hence, the goal of Stoicism is to cultivate an inner disposition that allows one to remain undisturbed by external circumstances, to react to events with reason rather than emotion, and to live in accordance with virtue.

The Stoic goal, then, is more than a mere philosophical ideal. It is a guide for a way of life, focusing on the cultivation of personal virtue, acceptance of what is beyond our control, and the development of a tranquil mind that remains steadfast in the face of life’s adversities.  This objective finds resonance even today in the realms of psychology and self-help, demonstrating the enduring relevance of Stoicism.

The Four Virtues of Stoicism

The four virtues of Stoicism, a philosophy that emphasizes rationality and self-control, are wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice. These virtues represent the core principles guiding a Stoic’s behavior and thought processes.

1. Wisdom

In Stoicism, the virtue of wisdom is about much more than just being knowledgeable. It’s a practical kind of wisdom, one that you apply in your everyday life. Imagine it as a guiding compass, helping you to distinguish what’s within your control and what’s not. This discernment is crucial because it empowers you to focus your energy and efforts on things you can actually influence, while accepting those you cannot change.

Wisdom in Stoicism also involves being aware of the impermanent nature of life. You recognize that both joy and suffering are temporary, which helps you maintain a balanced perspective in both good and bad times. This awareness fosters resilience, allowing you to face life’s challenges with a calm and steady mind.

It extends to understanding human nature and the world around you. This means being empathetic, understanding others’ viewpoints, and being open to learning from different experiences and people. It’s about making decisions that align not just with your personal values, but also considering the greater good.

In practicing Stoic wisdom, you also learn the art of reflection. It’s about regularly examining your actions, thoughts, and motivations, and learning from them. This introspection helps you grow wiser over time, ensuring that your actions are thoughtful and in alignment with your core principles.

You prioritize logic and rational thinking over emotional impulses, which helps in making well-thought-out decisions. This doesn’t mean suppressing emotions, but rather understanding them and responding to them in a reasoned way.

2. Courage

In Stoicism, courage is more than just physical bravery; it’s a mental and emotional strength that you can cultivate. This virtue is about facing life’s challenges, uncertainties, and adversities with resilience and determination. It means having the inner fortitude to stand up for your beliefs and values, even when it’s difficult or unpopular to do so.

You’re not just confronting external fears or dangers, but also internal ones. This includes overcoming self-doubt, insecurity, and negative thoughts that can hold you back. It’s about having the courage to be true to yourself, to pursue your goals and dreams, even in the face of setbacks or failures.

Courage in Stoicism also involves facing uncomfortable truths about yourself and the world. It means being willing to examine your own faults and weaknesses, and to work on improving them. This self-awareness and honesty take courage, as it’s often easier to ignore or deny our shortcomings.

Another aspect of Stoic courage is enduring pain or hardship without letting it overwhelm you. This doesn’t mean suppressing your emotions or pretending that everything is okay. Instead, it’s about acknowledging your feelings, understanding them, and then moving forward with a calm and steady mind.

Finally, Stoic courage is about the willingness to change. Change can be scary, but having the courage to embrace it is key to personal growth and development. This means being open to new ideas, experiences, and ways of thinking, and being brave enough to let go of old habits or beliefs that no longer serve you.

3. Temperance

Temperance in Stoicism is about finding a harmonious balance in your life. It’s the practice of self-discipline and moderation in all aspects of your life, whether it’s your emotions, desires, or actions. Think of temperance as the art of not going to extremes, but rather finding the middle path that leads to well-being and rational living.

When you practice temperance, you learn to control your impulses and desires, instead of letting them control you. This isn’t about denying yourself pleasure or suppressing your emotions, but about enjoying things in moderation and not allowing your desires to dictate your decisions. It’s understanding that excess, even in seemingly good things, can lead to negative consequences.

Temperance also involves being mindful of your reactions to external events. It’s about not allowing anger, frustration, or excitement to cloud your judgment and lead to actions you might later regret. When you’re temperate, you respond to situations with a calm and measured approach, ensuring your responses are thoughtful and considered.

In relationships, temperance means exercising patience and understanding. It’s about listening to others, being open to different viewpoints, and not letting emotions like anger or jealousy disrupt harmony and understanding.

Moreover, temperance is about self-care. It involves recognizing your limits and not pushing yourself to burnout. This includes taking time to rest and recharge, and not overcommitting yourself to work or social obligations. It’s understanding that taking care of your mental and physical health is crucial for maintaining balance in your life.

4. Justice

Justice in Stoicism is a deep-seated principle that guides how you interact with others and contribute to your community. It’s not just about adhering to laws or social norms, but about being fair, honest, and morally upright in all your dealings. This virtue is central to living a life that’s not only good for you but also beneficial to those around you.

When you embody Stoic justice, you treat others with respect and kindness, regardless of their status or what they can offer you. It’s about recognizing the inherent value in every person and acting in ways that honor that value. This means being honest in your interactions, not cheating or exploiting others, and standing up against injustice when you see it.

Justice also involves empathy and understanding. You strive to see things from others’ perspectives and show compassion. It’s acknowledging that everyone has their own struggles and challenges, and treating them with the understanding and patience you would hope for yourself.

In terms of community, practicing justice means contributing positively to the well-being of those around you. This could be through volunteering, helping a neighbor, or simply being a supportive friend or family member. It’s understanding that your actions have a ripple effect and choosing to make that impact a positive one.

Moreover, Stoic justice includes being fair in your judgments. It’s about not jumping to conclusions or letting biases cloud your judgment. You aim to see situations clearly and objectively, making decisions based on reason and fairness, rather than prejudice or self-interest.

Stoicism is a Practical Philosophy

1. Negative visualization

Have you ever considered the potential negative outcomes that could occur in the future? Or do you activate prevention mode in crowded places, fearing that your phone or wallet may be taken in an instant? If so, you are practicing “Negative Visualization.” However, why should we anticipate potential risks or misfortunes?

Negative visualization is a technique used in Stoic philosophy that involves imagining worst-case scenarios or the loss of something valuable in order to cultivate gratitude and a deeper appreciation for what one has in the present moment.

The idea behind negative visualization is that by contemplating the loss of something, one can come to realize the impermanence of all things and develop a greater sense of detachment from material possessions and external circumstances.

This practice can also help individuals prepare for difficult situations by mentally rehearsing how they might respond to adversity. By embracing the possibility of negative outcomes, individuals can become more resilient and better equipped to handle challenging situations when they arise.

The Stoics provided three reasons for why we should incorporate “Negative Visualization” into our lives:

• Prevent negative situations from occurring: By taking the time to contemplate potential illnesses or adverse events, we can take preventive measures to protect ourselves.
• Reduce the negative impact of negative situations: Envisioning our own reactions to negative events can provide us with some preparation and relieve the grief associated with the situation.
• Foster gratitude and appreciation for happiness: The Stoics advise us to imagine losing the things we hold dear, allowing us to appreciate the things we currently possess.

Overall, negative visualization is a powerful tool for cultivating gratitude, detachment, and resilience, and is a central aspect of Stoic philosophy.

2. Stoic fatalism

The philosophers of Stoicism, like most ancient Romans, believed in destiny, particularly in the theory of fate and the existence of three goddesses: Clotho, who spins the thread; Lachesis, who determines the length of the thread; and Atropos, who cuts the thread. According to this theory, humans cannot escape the fate chosen for them by the goddesses of fate, no matter how hard they try.

Stoic fatalism is a concept that can be misunderstood when it comes to Stoic philosophy. Some may think that Stoicism promotes a passive acceptance of fate, leading to a fatalistic worldview. However, this is not entirely accurate.

Stoics do believe in fate, but they also believe in free will. The Stoic view is that while some things are outside of our control, such as natural disasters or the actions of others, we still have control over our own thoughts, reactions, and attitudes. We can choose how we respond to external circumstances and cultivate our inner virtues.

For example, if a mother has a sick child, the Stoics would not advise her to believe in futurism because it will remind her that her actions have no impact on future events, while what she needs to do is take care of her baby.

But if the unfortunate child dies, they will advise the mother to believe in the fate theory of the past. It is natural to feel grief after the death of a child. However, being constantly immersed in that death will cause unnecessary suffering for the mother because the past cannot be changed.

Stoicism teaches that we should accept the things that are outside of our control and focus on what we can control. This is known as the Stoic dichotomy of control. By accepting that some things are inevitable and outside of our control, we can focus on developing our character and living a virtuous life.

In summary, Stoic fatalism is not about passively accepting one’s fate, but rather accepting the inevitability of some external events while maintaining control over one’s own thoughts and actions. It is about focusing on what we can control and living a virtuous life, rather than being consumed by fear or anxiety about things outside of our control.

The Importance of Stoicism in The Present Day

The significance of Stoicism in contemporary society can be understood through its continuing influence on a range of fields, from psychology and self-help to leadership and decision-making, demonstrating its enduring relevance and applicability.

Stoic philosophy’s emphasis on individual resilience, emotional control, and virtuous living aligns well with many concepts within modern psychology. Particularly, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), a widely recognized form of psychotherapy, shares significant commonalities with Stoic principles. Both CBT and Stoicism focus on the idea that our perceptions, rather than the events themselves, determine our emotional responses. This shared principle underscores the profound influence of Stoicism on psychological thought and therapeutic techniques.

In the realm of self-improvement and personal development, Stoicism’s practical philosophy offers a pragmatic approach to managing life’s adversities. Stoic practices such as dichotomy of control, negative visualization, and daily reflection equip individuals with tools to build emotional resilience, maintain tranquility, and foster a virtuous life. Consequently, these principles have been widely embraced by the self-help community and general public, providing practical guidance in navigating the complexities of modern life.

In leadership and decision-making, Stoic principles have proven valuable in fostering ethical conduct, emotional intelligence, and resilience under pressure—attributes highly sought after in today’s dynamic and challenging work environments. Leaders like James Stockdale, a US Navy vice admiral and Medal of Honor recipient, credited Stoicism for helping him endure seven years as a prisoner of war during the Vietnam War. Furthermore, modern-day entrepreneurs, such as Tim Ferriss, have openly advocated Stoic philosophy as a guide for effective leadership and decision-making.

In a broader societal context, Stoicism’s emphasis on universalism, moral responsibility, and cosmopolitanism provides ethical and philosophical underpinnings that align with the global challenges of the 21st century. As the world grapples with issues like climate change, social inequality, and political divisiveness, Stoicism’s focus on duty, fairness, and respect for nature offers a vital ethical framework for addressing these pressing concerns.

10 Famous Stoic Quotes

Stoic philosophy is known for its profound and insightful wisdom, beautifully encapsulated in the writings of its primary thinkers. Here are ten notable quotes from famous Stoic philosophers:

1. Zeno of Citium: “Well-being is realized by small steps, but it is truly no small thing.”
2. Cleanthes: “Fate guides the willing, but drags the unwilling.”
3. Chrysippus: “If you wish, you are free; if you wish, you need not fear; if you wish, you can be comforted.”
4. Seneca: “We suffer more often in imagination than in reality.”
5. Seneca: “It is not the man who has too little, but the man who craves more, that is poor.”
6. Epictetus: “We have two ears and one mouth so that we can listen twice as much as we speak.”
7. Epictetus: “It’s not what happens to you, but how you react to it that matters.”
8. Marcus Aurelius: “You have power over your mind – not outside events. Realize this, and you will find strength.”
9. Marcus Aurelius: “The happiness of your life depends upon the quality of your thoughts.”
10. Marcus Aurelius: “Waste no more time arguing about what a good man should be. Be one.”

These quotes reflect core tenets of Stoic philosophy, such as the pursuit of virtue, the importance of self-control, and the dichotomy of control—emphasizing the value of focusing on what is within one’s control rather than external circumstances. They continue to inspire and guide individuals towards leading a virtuous and tranquil life, demonstrating the timeless wisdom of Stoic philosophy.

Some Good Books on Stoicism

The study of Stoicism can be enriched by a variety of valuable resources, both classical texts written by the ancient Stoics themselves and contemporary interpretations that offer modern insights into this enduring philosophy.

Classic texts:

1. “Meditations” by Marcus Aurelius: This personal journal, authored by the Roman emperor, is filled with introspective reflections on virtue, duty, and the transience of life. It remains one of the most widely-read Stoic texts, providing a practical guide to the application of Stoic philosophy.
2. “Discourses and Selected Writings” by Epictetus: Epictetus, a former slave turned Stoic philosopher, presents his teachings in this collection. His works, transcribed by his pupil Arrian, focus on ethics and the philosophy of life, offering practical advice for living a virtuous life.
3. “Letters from a Stoic” by Seneca: Known also as the “Moral Letters to Lucilius,” this compilation of 124 letters from Seneca to his friend Lucilius provides insightful advice on a variety of ethical and moral issues, demonstrating Stoicism’s practical nature.

Contemporary texts:

1. “The Obstacle Is the Way: The Timeless Art of Turning Trials into Triumph” by Ryan Holiday: This modern take on Stoicism applies its principles to contemporary challenges. Holiday uses examples from history to illustrate how Stoic philosophy can transform obstacles into opportunities.
2. “How to Be a Stoic: Using Ancient Philosophy to Live a Modern Life” by Massimo Pigliucci: Pigliucci, a philosophy professor, combines personal anecdotes with the teachings of Epictetus to explain how Stoicism can help navigate modern life. The book serves as a guide to living a good life through Stoic principles.
3. “A Guide to the Good Life: The Ancient Art of Stoic Joy” by William B. Irvine: Irvine’s book offers a fresh interpretation of Stoicism, focusing on its practical applications for cultivating personal tranquility and satisfaction. The book is well-regarded for its accessible introduction to Stoicism.

The Famous Stoic Philosophers

Stoicism boasts a rich history of influential thinkers whose contributions have shaped the philosophy and ensured its enduring legacy. Here are some of the most renowned Stoic philosophers:

1. Zeno of Citium (c. 334-262 BC): The founder of the Stoic school of philosophy, Zeno was a Hellenistic philosopher from Citium, Cyprus. He established Stoicism after studying under the Cynics and was known for teaching in the Stoa Poikile, a decorated public colonnade in Athens, hence the term ‘Stoicism’.
2. Cleanthes of Assos (c. 330-230 BC): A student of Zeno, Cleanthes succeeded him as the head of the Stoic school. While only fragments of his works remain, his hymn to Zeus, a central Stoic text, reflects the Stoic belief in living in harmony with nature and the universe’s rational order.
3. Chrysippus of Soli (c. 279-206 BC): Considered one of the most influential Stoic philosophers, Chrysippus was instrumental in developing the school’s doctrines, especially in logic and ethics. Though most of his works are lost, his thoughts shaped the trajectory of Stoic philosophy.
4. Seneca (c. 4 BC-65 AD): A prominent Roman Stoic philosopher, Seneca was also a statesman and dramatist. His letters and essays, which include “Letters from a Stoic” and “On the Shortness of Life,” offer profound reflections on life, virtue, and the human condition, providing practical guidance on Stoic principles.
5. Epictetus (c. 50-135 AD): Born a slave, Epictetus later became a renowned Stoic philosopher. He taught that philosophy should be a way of life, not merely a theoretical pursuit. His discourses, preserved by his pupil Arrian, emphasized the dichotomy of control and the pursuit of virtue as the highest good.
6. Marcus Aurelius (121-180 AD): The Roman emperor is renowned for his meditations, personal reflections on Stoic philosophy, and its application to his life and rule. His “Meditations” remain a classic text, revealing the emperor’s commitment to virtue, duty, and the acceptance of death.

These philosophers represent the critical thinkers in the Stoic tradition, from its foundation in the Hellenistic period to its later development in the Roman Empire.  Their teachings continue to resonate in modern times, underscoring the enduring relevance and value of Stoic philosophy.

Reference more:

• 5 Common Myths about Stoicism: https://lotusbuddhas.com/5-common-myths-about-stoicism.html
• 5 Daily Practices to Become a Stoic Person: https://lotusbuddhas.com/5-daily-practices-to-become-a-stoic.html
• 4 Stoic Practices to Make You Happier in Life: https://lotusbuddhas.com/4-stoic-practices-to-make-you-happier.html